The Vikings

Hostile Christian sources demonize the Vikings; Muslim accounts render them exotic; revisionist historians belittle the Norse raids; archeological finds combined with a study of the Norse sagas enrich the understanding of Scandinavia's medieval past.

Scandinavia's landscape shapes its culture; dense forestation leads to close-knit communities; woodworking and sailing are the key means of long-distance travel; harsh winters engender skill in cold-weather commute; the emergence of great halls.

The physical evidence paints a picture of the Bronze Age in Scandinavia; Viking ancestors trade Arctic goods, amber and slaves in exchange for foreign copper and tin; new wealth fosters larger villages; the beginnings of the Norse pantheon.

Scandinavia survives on trade with the Celts; contact with Rome enriches the upper classes; Scandinavians returning from Roman military service bring back advanced weapons and armor; petty kings and the first Scandinavian sailing ships emerge.

Between 400 and 700, as the Roman political order collapses in Western Europe, Scandinavians pour in; Scandinavian stories celebrate West Germanic figures; in the seventh and eighth centuries, Christianization transforms the immigrants.

Norse religion is integral to Scandinavian life; a myth tells of primeval frozen wastes and sacred trees; the pantheon contains gods of war, sky and fertility; the afterlife in Valhalla and other great halls is a reward for great deeds.